The establishment of a Naga village was a highly structured process, firmly grounded in customary law and traditional practices. It extended far beyond the mere selection of land; it involved adherence to a sequence of ritual obligations and community-sanctioned procedures. These practices were not optional but were regarded as essential and binding, reflecting the deep cultural significance attributed to village founding within Naga society.
While the specific rituals and practices may vary slightly from one Naga community to another and from village to village within the same community, the underlying principles remained consistent across the region. These variations reflect the diversity of cultural expressions among the Nagas, but all adhered to the foundational belief that the process must be carried out with solemn respect for tradition. The following outlines the essential customary obligations traditionally observed in the establishment of a Naga village:
First Step: Site Selection
The first and foundational step in the establishment of a traditional Naga village was the selection of its site. This decision was never made lightly or arbitrarily, but was undertaken with utmost care, in accordance with established customary norms and spiritual considerations. The process was approached with a deep sense of reverence, reflecting both cultural and religious obligations.
According to tradition, the prospective founder—who would later assume the role of village chief—was required to wait for a divine indication before initiating the search for land. This sign, often received in the form of a dream or spiritual revelation, was interpreted as God’s permission to proceed. Until such a signal was revealed, it was considered improper to begin the search.
Once the divine message was received, the founder would prepare for a sacred ritual involving a mithun, an animal held in high cultural and spiritual regard. The mithun had to be unblemished and pure (without any deformity), symbolizing both sacredness and the seriousness of the act. Its significance also lies in its biological affinity with humans—particularly the shared gestation period of nine months—which elevated its symbolic status in ritual contexts.
As a part of the ritual, the founder would address the animal directly, invoking its shared essence with humankind and entrusting it with the task of leading the way to a divinely chosen site. The invocation, traditionally spoken aloud, was as follows:
“O, Mithun, you are also born of nine-month gestation as human beings. Go and find a beautiful and fertile place for my village.”
A flat stone slab was then tied securely to the back of the Mithun, and the founder, accompanied by his people, would follow the animal as it wandered. The site where the mithun lays down and, crucially, where the stone slab on its back also fell, was interpreted as the divinely approved location. If the Mithun rested but the slab did not fall, the spot was rejected. Only when both the animal and the stone slab came to rest together was the site confirmed as sacred and suitable for the village.
This ritual practice is supported by material and oral evidence. For instance, the stone slab used in the founding of Kuilong village in Tamei Sub-Division, Tamenglong district, is still preserved today by the current village chief, Mathiuchunbou Niumai. The writer had the opportunity to witness the stone personally. A similar artifact is reportedly maintained in Kypunglua (also known as Punglua) village in Peren district, Nagaland, underscoring the shared ritual framework across different regions.
Thus, the selection of a village site was not merely a practical undertaking but a sacred process, conducted through divinely guided ritual and steeped in deeply rooted customary beliefs.
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Second Step: Preparation for Site Dedication
Following the identification of a divinely sanctioned site, the next phase involved preparatory activities for the ritual dedication of the land. Temporary shelters—referred to by various local names depending on the dialect and community—were constructed at or near the chosen site. These shelters served as provisional dwellings while the villagers gathered and prepared the necessary ritual materials required for the formal entry into the new village.
The selection of an auspicious day for entering the site was not arbitrary; it was determined through an act of divinatory listening. Specifically, the crow of a cock played a central role in this process. The villagers awaited a distinctive sound in the crow—particularly one that resembled the call “wanglo,” meaning “come along” in Liangmai Naga dialect. Only when such a crowing was heard and interpreted as an affirmative sign would the day of dedication be set.
During the interim period of preparation, the individual who had either followed the mithun or performed the symbolic act of shooting the guiding arrow assumed the role of ritual officiant or priest. He was required to maintain ritual purity, which included abstaining from physical contact with his spouse and observing personal holiness. It was strictly forbidden for an unmarried man to carry out this sacred function, reflecting the belief that marital maturity conferred the necessary ritual authority and spiritual readiness.
As a part of the dedication, 12 distinct items were customarily required under ‘Liangmai Naga’ practice. These materials were considered essential components in the symbolic and spiritual planting of the village. Each article carried specific meanings and functions, rooted in long-standing tradition. These 12 items, commonly found in every Naga village established according to customary principles—particularly among the Hamai (Liangmai) people—are briefly discussed in the section that follows, highlighting their individual purposes and cultural significance.
Kabuichi (Male Mithun)
The male mithun was considered a ritually pure animal, reserved exclusively for acts of sanctification. According to customary belief, the animal used for such rites had to be spotless and free from any physical deformity. No substitute animal was permitted for these specific sacrifices. The mithun offered during sanctification ceremonies was referred to as karengtei bui, while some communities also used the term manuangbui. Its role was not merely sacrificial but also symbolic of spiritual purity and divine favour.
Maruireng (Cock)
A full-grown, unblemished cock was employed in the ritual proceedings marking the foundation of a new village. The crow of the cock held particular importance in determining auspicious timings and resolving disputes. Traditionally, when conflicts or uncertainties arose, the crow of the cock was treated as a final divine portent. Additionally, the cock served as a sacrificial offering in rituals for healing, protection from natural calamities, and other communal needs. It also functioned as a natural timekeeper for daily life in pre-modern Naga society.
Tiuchang (Precious Necklace)
Also known as Taluitiu, the Tiuchang was a treasured ornament symbolizing wealth and prosperity. Historically, it was worn by affluent women and considered a sign of good fortune. During village dedication, the necklace was suspended on the right side of the village entry gatepost. As each individual entered, they would touch the necklace, signifying a communal sharing of blessings and material well-being.
Biuking (A Kind of Bamboo)
This particular variety of bamboo was valued for its strength and durability. Symbolically, it represented physical strength and resilience for the village’s inhabitants. Beyond its ritual significance, bamboo played a central role in daily life—used in construction, household tools, and commercial activities. Its inclusion in the ritual underscored the importance of resourcefulness and self-reliance.
Kabiutam (Ginger)
Ginger was considered one of the essential crops in both daily and ritual life. Apart from its culinary and medicinal uses, it was also employed as a substitute offering in religious ceremonies where animal or bird sacrifices were not possible. Its inclusion in the village founding ritual symbolized health, vitality, and spiritual sanctity.
Jou Ngu (Locally Brewed Rice Beer)
Rice beer held a central place in the socio-religious life of the community. It was consumed daily, especially by elders, and was an indispensable component of all religious ceremonies. Every sacrificial act traditionally began with an offering of jou ngu, emphasizing its spiritual and communal importance.
Gainiam (A Type of Fine Thatch)
This tiny yet expansively growing variety of thatch was used for roofing. In the ritual context, it symbolized fertility and population growth. Its inclusion in the village dedication ceremony was meant to invoke blessings for an expanding and thriving community.
Nkangbang (Solanum campaniforme)
This bitter herb is unique in that its fruit does not wither or fall before reaching full maturity. It was used to represent the aspiration that villagers would enjoy robust health and long life, free from premature death and chronic illness. It symbolized endurance and natural resilience.
Marangbang (Cereus peruvianus)
A species of cactus with thick, water-retentive stems, Marangbang symbolized longevity and vitality. Its ability to thrive in harsh conditions made it an apt emblem for the enduring spirit of the village. Traditionally, it was planted on either side of the village gates as a guardian of life and prosperity.
Phuapbang (A Soft-Leaved Plant)
Known for its soft leaves and sweet-flavored flower juice, Phuapbang symbolized humility and harmonious living. The softness of its leaves denoted gentleness among community members, while the sweetness represented social cohesion and abundance. It was also regarded as one of the most ancient plants and was therefore held in high esteem. Customarily, it was planted near entry gates and homestead areas. Its absence in any Liangmai village would call into question the village’s authenticity and rootedness in indigenous tradition.
Shingsu (A Kind of Reed)
Shingsu is a resilient type of reed known for its remarkable ability to remain green throughout all seasons. It seldom withers, regardless of climatic conditions. Within the ritual framework of village establishment, Shingsu symbolized enduring vitality, good health, and prosperity for the community. Its inclusion in the dedication ceremony was a prayerful gesture for sustained well-being and long life for all who would inhabit the new village.
Chukh (Rhizome Root)
Chukh is a rhizome root with specialized ritual functions. Unlike other materials that may be used frequently in various ceremonies, Chukh held a more exclusive role. It was employed in highly significant rites such as the sanctification of newly founded villages and newly constructed houses, purification rituals for cleansing sins, and in addressing serious social crises such as crimes or deaths. Its ritual potency was considered essential for maintaining spiritual and moral order within the community.
Third Step: Erection of the Village Gate
The third stage in the process of village establishment involved the formal erection of the village gateposts, a critical ritual act marking the boundary and identity of the new settlement. The entrance gate was strategically positioned to face the direction from which the founding group had journeyed. In accordance with Naga tradition, each village was to have two gates—an entrance and an exit—each serving both symbolic and practical functions in village life and ritual geography.
Once the gateposts were erected, a small ritual pit was dug at the base of the right-side post. This marked the site of the sanctification ceremony. At this point, the founder of the village—who would formally assume the role of Chief—took on the responsibility of priest and officiant. He was required to perform the rites of dedication with utmost solemnity, precision, and ritual fear, as it was believed that any mistake or deviation could bring misfortune upon the entire village.
The stakes of the ritual were understood to be high; the spiritual well-being and destiny of the village were believed to be directly tied to the correctness of this performance. To ensure the smooth execution of the rites, an assistant was nominated from among the group. This individual, who supported the Chief in carrying out the ritual procedures, would eventually assume the role of Deputy Chief. Together, they oversaw the preparation and placement of ritual items—most notably, locally brewed rice beer (jou ngu) and ground ginger (kabiu tam)—which were placed near the ritual pit as offerings.
The central purpose of the dedication ritual was to invoke peace and harmony with the surrounding environment. The officiating priest was tasked with appeasing all forms of creation within the area: wild and domestic animals, poisonous and non-poisonous insects, the elements of wind, rain, and storm, as well as trees, grasses, and even the unseen spirits associated with the land. Every living and non-living entity was to be acknowledged and propitiated to ensure their blessing and goodwill toward the new village.
On the day preceding the dedication ceremony, priest (i.e., the future Chief) observed a ritual fast, seeking divine favor and blessings on behalf of his people, as he prepared to establish a new village through the appeasement of all surrounding elements and forms of creation, as outlined below:
Priest: “O Mother Earth and Father Heaven, I come before you to make a sacred bond with this land, that I may establish my village upon it. I seek to wed this ground and enter into friendship with you. From this day forward, let us live in mutual peace. Be merciful and watch over us.”
(He drops ground ginger and pours rice beer into the ceremonial pit.)
Priest: “O Wind and Thunder, Storm and Weather, I acknowledge your power and presence. I have entered into covenant with you, and from now on, we are bound as friends. May your forces be tempered with kindness toward this village.”
(He offers ground ginger and rice beer into the pit.)
Priest: “O Beasts and Animals, Insects both venomous and harmless, I honor your place in this land. I have wedded you in spirit, and from today onward, we shall dwell together as friends. May there be peace between your kind and mine.”
(Ground ginger and rice beer are again offered.)
Priest: “O Trees and Weeds, you who stand silently and grow upon this earth, I acknowledge your presence and vitality. I have made a pact of friendship with you. May our coexistence bring fruitfulness and balance.” (He completes the final offering of ground ginger and rice beer.)
Following the initial appeasement rituals to the elements and natural world, the priest offered a final sanctification prayer to the Creator. This solemn invocation was an appeal for divine blessing upon the village and its future:
“O God of Heaven and Earth, I have entered into a sacred bond with all your creation in order to establish this village upon the land You have made. Bless my people abundantly—may our population grow, may we be granted prosperity, ample food grains, an increase in cattle and fowl, a secure and peaceful life, good health, and freedom from disease. May harmony dwell in our midst, and may we be protected from calamity.”
Ritual Entry to the Village Site
With the completion of this prayer, the community proceeded to enter the newly sanctified village site. However, before the general population could cross the threshold, the priest, acting in his dual role as both spiritual leader and founder, entered first through the gateway. There, he conducted a brief ritual dialogue as a formal rite of passage.
A group of young men, chosen for their ritual purity, led a spotless Mithun as part of the procession. A sacred necklace—known as Tiuchang or Taluitiu in the Liangmai language—was suspended on the right-hand side of the entryway. As each person entered the new village, they were required to touch the necklace, symbolizing shared ownership of wealth, peace, and common identity.
The priest initiated a ceremonial dialogue as follows:
Priest: “To which village do you belong?”
Young men (in unison): “We are from [Name of Village].”
Priest: “What do you bring?”
Young men: “We bring good and noble human lineage, prosperity, and a blameless mithun.”
Priest: “If so, proceed and enter.”
Upon satisfactory responses, the priest led the entry into the village, followed by the young men pulling the Mithun and then the rest of the community. Each person touched the necklace in reverence. Once inside, the male members of the community gathered at the central space and gave out ritual howls—vocal expressions that, in Naga tradition, convey varied meanings such as victory, mourning, or celebration. In this context, the howling signified triumph and rightful occupation of the land.
Fourth Step: Ignition of the Sacred Fire
Following the ritual entry, the priest—now officially recognized as the Chief—ignited the first fire within the village. This act was of paramount importance, as only the Chief and his descendants held the exclusive right to create and maintain the village’s sacred fire. It was forbidden to bring fire from external sources. This fire symbolized both spiritual purity and political sovereignty.
Subsequently, the Chief also had the responsibility to dig or assign a water source for communal use, further affirming his role as custodian of both land and life. In this process, he formally became the Owner and Chief of the village.
At the central location of the village, the blameless Mithun brought during the dedication rites was then sacrificed. The site of this sacrifice became the village shrine, serving as a permanent place for future communal offerings. A small pit was again dug at this shrine where cooked beef, ground ginger, and rice beer were buried as offerings to Mother Earth.
The priest then pronounced the Second Sanctification Prayer:
“O Lord Almighty, Creator of the Universe, as we now dwell upon this land, grant that my people may be strong like Biuliang (a species of sturdy bamboo), may our numbers multiply as Gainiam (an expansive thatch grass), may food grains overflow without scarcity, and may our lives be long and prosperous.”
With this concluding prayer, the process of village establishment was deemed complete. The individual who had undertaken all responsibilities—at great personal and spiritual risk—was formally acknowledged as the Chief and Founder of the village. This title was not conferred nor appointed, but earned through devotion, ritual duty, and sacrificial leadership.
The Hereditary Chief: Customary Institution and Cultural Pillar
The role of the village chief in Naga society is a hereditary institution deeply intertwined with identity, history, customs, and the socio-economic life of the community. It is an inalienable component of tribal governance and spiritual legitimacy. The Chief not only owns the land and resources of the village but embodies its continuity and cultural heritage.
Traditionally, the rites of village establishment were believed to be spiritually perilous. Mistakes in performance could lead to misfortune or even the death of the officiant. As elders often recount, “the work of founding a new village was an act in exchange for one’s life.” Hence, the entire process was carried out with the utmost reverence, caution, and sacred intention.
Given the magnitude of responsibility and risk undertaken, any attempt to abolish or invalidate the hereditary chief’s rights is viewed as a direct threat to tribal identity and autonomy. The erosion of this institution would not only signify the loss of cultural and historical continuity but would also imply the dispossession of communal land and the disintegration of social order.
Policy Critique: The Manipur Hill Areas (Acquisition of Village Chief’s Rights) Act, 1967
The enactment of the Manipur Hill Areas (Acquisition of Village Chief’s Rights) Act, 1967, is viewed with deep concern among the tribal communities, particularly the Nagas. The Act seeks to:
Abolish the hereditary rights of tribal village chiefs; and establish a uniform land tenure system.
Both objectives are fundamentally at odds with the customary law and traditional institutions of the Naga people. The implementation of such legislation risks generating significant social and political conflict, particularly between hill and valley communities. It is therefore strongly recommended that the Act be repealed in the interest of preserving cultural integrity, ensuring peaceful coexistence, and maintaining historical justice.
By K Daimai
(The author, K Daimai, can be reached at nnnpress70@gmail.com)
(This is not a Ukhrul Times publication. UT is not responsible for, nor does it necessarily endorse its content. Any reports or views expressed are solely those of the author and do not necessarily reflect those of Ukhrul Times.)
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